Researching family history in Norway can be a bit challenging due to the patronymic naming system that was widely used until 1923. On one hand, its nice because if your ancestor's name was Ole Jonsson or Lena Jonsdatter, then you already know that the father's first name was Jon. But you have no idea what his last name was, and you can't look anything up by surname since it changed every generation. That is where the farm names become so important. Up until the 1800s, 80-90% of Norway's inhabitants lived on farms and each farm had a name. Furthermore, mountainous inland areas like Suldal, generally allowed for only small, scattered settlement areas around river deltas or gorges. Back in the 1800s, these small hamlets generally held at most about 5 farms, so saying your farm name was almost like saying what town you were from. And thankfully, that is how Norwegian farmers often referred to themselves when baptizing a child, or answering a census worker. So if Ole Jonsson lived on the Guggedal farm in the town of Bratveit, Norway, he would refer to himself as Ole Jonsson Guggedal, or sometimes just Ole Guggedal. Not so bad, right? However, if his family decided to move to nearby Vetrhus farm instead, he now began to refer to himself as Ole Jonsson Vetrhus, or maybe just Ole Vetrhus. So it gets complicated to trace whose who.
Guatun (Guattun) farm in Nesflaten, Suldal, Rogaland, Norway today
Gautun farm (now Gauttun (Note 1)) lies at the western edge of the river delta hamlet of Nesflaten, Suldal, Norway. It is a quaint, rural village, overlooking the deep waters of Lake Suldal (Suldalsvatnet) and nestled within the rocky folds of Mount Melsnuten (Mælen). Suldal lake is the headwaters of the Suldal River (Suldalslågen), which travels a winding 30 miles westward to the city of Sand, and then empties into the Sands Fjord (Sandsfjorden). When the census was taken in 1664, Nesflaten contained 3 original undivided farms (matrikkelgård): Overskeid (Avinskei), Haugen, and Gautun. Amazingly, these 3 farms still exist today (along with a few more as well), as they probably have, in one form or another, for more than 1,000 years.
Google Map showing the 29 mile route from Nesflaten to Sand. Lake Suldal feeds into the Suldal River just north of Suldalsosen (you can see this map in better resolution by clicking on the link). It is a long, skinny lake; about 18 miles in length and just over a mile wide. Today you can travel this route by car rather than boat, by following the historic National Road 13 (shown above). The family line lived at various farms along this route throughout the 17th-19th centuries, and probably for much longer.
Mapcarta satellite view of Nesflaten, Suldal, Norway, showing 5 of the farms now present there. Gauttum farm is found on the Westernmost end of the hamlet.
Example of a Norwegian Stave church, a medieval style of architecture using a wooden post and lintel construction technique. This particular church is found in Borgund, Norway, and is believed to have been built about 1200 AD.
Many farmers were also excellent craftsmen, a skill which could be put to use for extra income during the winter months.
"Mother there comes an old woman" (Mor der kommer en kjerring) by Theordor Kittelsen. In Norway, the black death was often described as arriving in the shape of an old woman named Pesta, who would travel from community to community with a broomstick and a rake. If you came across her path while she held her rake, then at least some of your people would be spared. But if she was sweeping with her broom, all would be dead within 3 days.
A Norwegian pillared storehouse built in the 17th century. They were built raised off the ground and with a gap between the steps and walls in order to help prevent mice from entering. Inside they kept bins or grain and flour, salted meats and fish, and cold hardy dairy such as butter and cheese. History mentions their use back to the age of the Vikings, and keeping them in top shape and secure from rats and thieves was of the utmost importance.
On the Banks of the Fjord by Hans Dahl, depicting young milkmaid being taken out for a boat ride by her suitor.
Li farm museum in Suldal Parish, Rogaland, Norway. Here one can view and example of the small, interdependent farm community (bygd) that this region is known for. These characteristic Norwegian communities were created as a function of the farm subdivisions, which allowed farmers to make the most of the limited land available. By the keeping the homes and farm buildings small and tightly packed, they left a greater amount of land free for crops and pasturing.
Tjaerand Tjaerandsen survived the difficult post-war years of his childhood and went on to marry Marta Sveinungsdatter, also from Veka farm, in 1848 at the age of 25. Together they had 7 children, 5 of whom survived to adulthood. Sometime between their second and third child, they left Veka farm for the nearby Vikene farm, about a half mile down the road. Sadly, Tjaerand did not live long into adulthood. He died in 1861 at the young age of 38, when his youngest child was just 1 year old. Financially, this seems to have been very disruptive to the family. In 1865, Marta was still living on Vikene farm with her young family and managing to get by somehow. But as soon as the children were old enough to work, they were sent away from farm to make their own way elsewhere. By 1875, the youngest, Kari, age 15, was working as a maid servant back on Veka farm. Brita, the next youngest, had gone up the lake a ways to work as a maid servant on Guggedal farm. Marta's oldest son, Tjaerand, had gone with her back to Nesflaten, where they were working at Kilen farm. But her second oldest son, Sveinung Tjerandsen (b.1851), along with her daughter Ingrid, decided to take their lives in a new direction. In the early 1870's, they became the first of the direct line to leave Suldal parish behind, and travel 100 miles eastward to Bjørg, Telemark, Norway.
8) Qualey, Carlton C. “Pioneer Norwegian Settlement in Minnesota.” Minnesota History, vol. 12, no. 3, 1931, pp. 247–80. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20160922. Accessed 24 Dec. 2023.
Norway is, of course, part of the original homeland of the Vikings, who were in power from about 800 to 1050 AD. While we tend to be more familiar with the Vikings that went around conquering places like England, the reality is that most Vikings were simple farming folk, just like in the rest of Europe. During the Viking era, extended families (and livestock) usually lived all together in large Turf or Longhouses and worshiped Norse gods like Odin. The Norse religious beliefs of the old country began to be slowly Christianized around 995 AD, after King Olaf Tryggvason was converted and baptized into the Roman Catholic faith during an expedition to England. By the end of the 11th century, there were likely at least 3 Catholic stave churches in the Suldal Parish, one in Jelsa, one in Sand, and closest to our ancestors, the Suldal Church in Sudalsosen. During the Protestant Reformation, King Christian III converted Norway to Lutheranism in 1539 (ie persecuted Catholic priests and took over church lands while burning/plundering churches all along the way). He also established the state sponsored Church of Norway. In light of all this mayhem, the Suldal Church has been rebuilt several times over the centuries, with the most recent version being constructed in 1852. A parish church in Nesflaten was first built at this time as well.
The Nesflaten Chapel of Suldal Parish of the Church of Norway. The current Suldal church in Suldal hamlet was designed by the same architect, Hans Linstow, and is of very similar style. The cemetery of the Nesflaten Chapel was not created until about 1848.
Unfortunately, the Suldal Parish churches did not begin record keeping until 1778, and so up until that point we know very little about the family line. We do know than that Østen Jonsen's first born son was named Torkel Østensen (b.1716), and that now that the farm was owned, several generations of this line's first born sons would continue to reside on Gautun for their entire life span. What was life like for these Norwegian peasant living far up in the mountainous terrain of Suldal Parish?
Drawing by Severin Worm-Petersen depicting a pre-industrial Norwegian mountain farm
Unlike most other areas in Europe, Norway never adopted a feudal system for land ownership, due to a lack of rich nobility with which to purchase and administrate it (Ref 1, p.21). When church land was taken over by the king during the Reformation, most of it was simply sold to the peasants who cultivated it, and by the mid-1700s the majority of peasants were land owners (bøndergods) (Ref 9). Under this system, even non-landowning tenant farmers (leilending) were given a great bit of leeway. Their share of the farm's cultivation was taken in the form of rents, but the way in which the tenant farmer's family went about earning the amount needed was up to the tenants themselves.
Additionally, throughout the 1400-1600s, farm land in Norway was plentiful and cheap. This was due to the black death that had ravaged the country in 1349-1351, killing about 65% of its inhabitants (Ref 3, p.144), including most of its noble class (Note 5). Many farms during this period were abandoned, especially in lower quality and/or more isolated mountainous areas. Despite later strong population growth, pre-plague levels of population were not again attained until the late 1600s, and for a time, population growth was easily absorbed by the reoccupation of previously abandoned farms. Having such relatively easy access to farm land ownership allowed this ideal to become an important part of Norwegian identity.
Due to their remote location and short growing season, mountain-based Norwegians were unable to rely overly on crops for their subsistence. Instead, farmers survived by growing what grain they could, mainly barley and oat, and then supplementing their crop with the proceeds from fishing, dairy, and livestock (Ref 1, p.20). The goal was to get the store house (stabbur) as full as possible before the cold set in, so that the family and livestock could make it through the long, dark winter. It was not uncommon for cattle to be too weak in the spring to rise up from the barn floor. During years of repeated crop difficulties, whole families could starve.
Another strategy Norwegian farmers from mountainous regions like Suldal used was that of the summer dairy (seter). Historically, Norwegians recognized only two seasons - summer and winter. Summer started on April 14th and ran though Oct 13th, with Midsummer's Eve falling on July 13th. Once summer arrived, livestock were released from the dark, cramped barns and preparations were made for the journey (buføring) to the mountain summer pasture. Often this pasture was some distance from the main homestead, but at a fixed location near a stream where primitive dwellings were maintained for processing animal milk into food, and storing it safely until it could be transported back to the main farm. The two main tenets of these summer dwellings were the milkmaid (seterbudeie) and the cowherd (gjetergutt). In old Norwegian literature, many romances begin with a young suitor utilizing the long summer nights to make his way up the mountain for a visit with the desire of his heart.
Summer pasturing allowed for much smaller allotments of land to be necessary on the main farm. The result was that multiple households could be maintained on a relatively small piece of farmland. Farm owners utilized this advantage by subdividing the original farm (matrikkelgård) into subfarms (bruk), whose owners were sometimes related to the original family. During census taking, each farm and subfarm would be assigned a number to help make their identity more clear. Although some of the names have changed a bit due to the standardization of spelling that occurred in the early 1900s, most of the 68 Suldal main farms listed on the 1664 census can still be located (or if not the farm itself, then at least the village where it was once stood). Farmers also began to create cottager (husmann) tenancies at the edge of farms (Ref 1, p.21). Instead of paying rent, the cotter was bound to work the main farm for a set number of days per year. Norwegian farmers relied heavily on these work agreements to make certain to have enough labor to complete the work that would get the family through the long winter. In early times, they took these agreements so seriously that farmhands were only allowed to leave their jobs on two specific days of the year, April 14th and Oct 14th (the beginning of the new season, called "faredag"), and even then, only if they had first given at least 8 weeks notice.
Such was the world Torkel Ostenson was born into as he came of age in the mid 1730s. Torkel first married in his mid-20s to a woman named Kari Eriksdatter. She was from Guggedal farm (near Bråtveit, Fig 2), about a 5 mile row down the length of Lake Suldal. They had at least 2 daughters together. Unfortunately, sometime after this second daughter, Torkel's first wife died. He made do for a few years on his own, and then married again in his mid-30s. His second wife was a woman named Ingrid Oddsdatter from Foss farm (Fig 1), which was quite a ways down river from Nesflaten. She was about 10 years younger than him, which was fairly typical for second marriages in these farming communities. Ingrid joined Torkel on Gautun farm, and they added 7 more children to the family. Their second born child, Aad Torkelsen (b.1754), was this line's direct ancestor. Torkel died in 1768 at the age of 52. Despite being only 14 at the time, as his first born son, Aad would have been the child most likely to take ownership of the farm when he came of age, which seems to have been what occurred. All but one of Torkel's 9 children lived to adulthood (this was during a time when the child mortality rate was close to 25% (Ref 4)). The other children all left Gautun farm, but settled at other nearby farms along Suldal Lake and River.
Nesflaten, Suldal, Rogaland, Norway in 1888
Aad (sometimes spelled Odd) married in his mid-20s, to a woman named Kari Tjaerandsdatter from Vetrhus farm (Fig 2). Vethrus farm was in the same river valley as Guggedal, but about a mile inland and farther up the mountain. They raised a family of 9 children together on Gautun farm, though 2 of them died in early childhood. Their second born son, Tjaerand Aadsson (b.1782), was our direct line. His older brother, Torkel (b.1779), inherited the family farm after their father passed in 1818 at the age of 64. Interestingly, Torkel's family line continued to occupy Gauttun farm until at least 1910, after which time the family moved to Urheim farm, directly adjacent to Gauttun. A member of the family was living on the Urheim farm in Nesflaten until at least 2004, and more recent members of the family are buried in the Nesflaten churchyard.
Norwegian Christmas on the farm, 1846 painting by Adolph Tidemand
Not being the first born son, upon adulthood Tjaerand Aadsson set off to find a future of his own. In 1809, at the age of 27, he married a woman named Ingrid Ostensdatter from Jordebrekk farm in the even more remote Suldal hamlet of Bleskestad (Fig 2). Together they moved to the farm hamlet of Veka, about a mile from the heart of the Sudal parish- Suldalsosen. There Ingrid gave birth to 8 children, though sadly 3 of them died in early childhood. This was during the very difficult final years of the Napoleonic Wars. Since 1536, Norway had been considered a Danish province, and Denmark chose to align itself with Napoleon against Britain during the wars. In 1807, the British bombed the Danish capital of Copenhagen in order to capture and destroy the Dano-Norwegian Navy. Britain was successful, and after this battle the Royal Navy was able to effectively block all Norwegian ports from trade for the remainder of the war, which ended in 1814. By 1812, the Kingdom of Norway was suffering under mass starvation and economic hardship, and it was not until the 1840s that financial stability finally improved. Though Tjaerand and Ingrid's first three children born during the war did survive to adulthood (Note 2), all 3 children born shortly after the war, from 1816-1819, died before the age of 8. Thankfully, the family seems to have been doing better by 1822, because that is when Tjaerand Tjaerenden, the line we descend from, was born.
The bombing of Copenhagen, Denmark in Sept 1807
After the war ended in 1814, Denmark was forced to give up control of Norway, and instead it passed to the hands of Sweden as a democratic constitutional monarchy. Though not without Norwegians first attempting to fight for their independence. Frustrated by their thwarted efforts to become an independent nation, while at the same time wary of their new Swedish political ties, it became important to Norwegians to develop their own sense of Norwegian nationalism (Ref 5, p.3). In addition to formally documenting Norwegian spelling, art, and folklore, the writings of philosophers sought to create an ideal of who a "true Norwegian" was. This ideal was meant to be in opposition to someone who was "intellectually Danish" or "politically Swedish" at heart, as many in the ruling class were judged to be (Ref . 5, pp.9-13). Given these constraints, the ideal, genuine Norwegianer began to look a lot like a traditional, rural Norwegian farmer. In order to preserve their "Norwegianness", many felt it was vitally important to begin educating this working class of farmers so that they could begin to take on a larger role in the democratic process (Ref 5, p.16).
Beginning in the 1830s, the development of a modern education system began to take shape for the purpose of strengthening and modernizing the nation (Ref 6, p.9). Unfortunately, this coincided with the early industrial revolution in Norway, which by the the 1860s was shifting farmers away from traditional agriculture, and into the mechanized labor of the cities instead. As trade and agricultural methods modernized, nutrition improved and the population of the nation skyrocketed. Between 1800 and 1900, Norway's number of inhabitants almost tripled, and during the 1850's, experienced a higher rate of growth than any other European nation. The amount of farm land available for carrying out the newly defined Norwegian dream did not change overly much, however, and thus more and more Norwegians began to feel that their ideal pursuit of happiness could be better obtained in the land rich New World (Ref 7, p.52).
Photo of immigrants waiting for a boat to travel from Bergen, Norway to America in the 1860s. Beginning in 1849, steam ships dramatically reduced the amount of time it took to cross the Atlantic- from about 3 months to about 3 weeks, making the difficulty of traveling abroad much less burdensome than it had been previously.
Map showing the town of Bjørg, within the parish of Seljord, within the county of Telemark, Norway.
It is unknown for certain what was behind Ingrid and Sveinung's decision to move to Telemark upon reaching adulthood. Probably not the stories of Selma, the sea monster, said to live in the waters of Lake Seljord at that time, but who knows? More likely might be the Dyrsku'n, an annual agricultural show that the Seljord area became known for, which attracts many thousands of visitors each year. It began in 1866, and at that time specialized primarily in cattle, which would have been an area Sveinung and Ingrid were quite familiar with given their mountain farm upbringing. The 1870s were also a major period of restructuring in Norway's agricultural section. Adoption of more modern mechanized farming techniques reached wide spread levels of adoption this decade, forcing many farm laborers out of work. With their father's early passing leaving the family scattered, Ingrid and Sveinung probably felt less tied to the small farming communities around them than previous generations of the family line. And like many Norwegian's of that time, they were probably searching for an area where they could carry on the farming tradition they had been born into, though perhaps with some modern additions, as young folk are more apt to do.
Seljord Church, first built in 1180 AD, where Sveinung and Gunlaug baptized their first child, Tjerand Sveinungson, in 1876.
1906 plat map for Hayward, Freeborn Co., MN showing the property of Sveinung Tjerandson. Located at "the South Half of the North West Quarter of Section 31, Twp. 102, Range 20, containing roughly 40 acres."
Lake Seljord (Seljordsvatnet), home of Selma, the infamous sea serpent
Fig 3: Seljord Municipality, containing Seljord Church and the nearby town of Bjørge
By 1874, Sveinung had married a woman named Gunlaug Haraldsdatter, who was born on the mountain farm of Dalen (Fig 3), just a mile north of Bjørge. In 1875, Sveinung, his sister Ingrid, and his new wife were all living on the farm of Leif Ellefsen in Bjørge, along with another young couple as well. A year later, Sveinung and Gunlaug welcomed their first child Tjerand Sveinungson (b.1876, direct line) into the world. Unfortunately, this Tjerand was born just as Norway was entering a long period of economic depression. Previously, Norway had overcome the economic instability at the launch of the Industrial Revolution, and had entered a period of strong economic growth from 1843-1875 as it joined the world market in trade. But this worldwide period of expansion hit a major snag in 1873 when the US government passed the Coinage Act; a law which had the ultimate effect of basically forcing the world to adopt the gold standard monetary system. Initially, this caused a sudden contraction of the world's money supply, prompting a run on the banks. In Norway, this led to a long period of deflation that strangled the economy. By 1880, Norwegians began fleeing this economic hardship with large-scale emigration to America.
In 1880 (Note 3), Sveinung Tjerandson and his wife Gunlaug Haraldsdatter, decided to join this wave of Norwegian emigrants looking for better opportunities overseas. Gunlaug's sister Margit and her family joined with them on the voyage. Sveinung's sister Ingrid did not accompany them though. Instead, like many others in the failing agricultural sector, she finally abandoned the farming lifestyle and instead made her way to Oslo, Norway; the country's economic, industrial, and governmental hub. For those that did choose the immigration pathway, however, the Midwest of America was the place to go at the time. Many of the pre-Civil War immigrants from Norway had settled in western Wisconsin and along the Red River Valley of Minnesota (Ref 8). After the Civil War, the passage of the 1862 Homestead Act saw continued Norwegian settlement in southern Minnesota and Northern Iowa. By 1880, many of these farmers were pulling up stakes again to try out homesteading on the relatively untouched lands of North and South Dakota.
Late 1800s advertisement for land in Minnesota in South Dakota
Sveinung and Gunlaug started out in Albert Lea, Freeborn Co., MN, where they lived for a time with the family of one of Margit's brother-in law's siblings. This sibling, Andres Knudtson, had been born on Overland farm (Fig 3) less than a mile from the Dalen farm where Gunlaug and Margit had been raised. When Andres and his wife Anlaug first came to America in 1867, relatives had provided them with similar hospitality to help smooth the way. By 1900, they had purchased a 40 acre farm in nearby Hayward, MN.
Upon arriving in the US, many Norwegians chose to Americanize their last names in order to better fit in with their new neighbors. This usually involved either changing all of the household last names to match the father's surname, or taking the name of the farm the family had worked on as a surname. By the 1880 census, the family was using Tjerandson as their surname, and thus their son, Tjerand Sveinungson, had become Tjerand Tjerandson. By 1900, they had Americanized their last name further, going now by the more pronounceable surname of Vigdahl (though this does not seem to have been a formal name change, given the continued use of Tjerandson on later legal documents). The word "dal" in Norwegian means valley. Given that "g" and "k", as well as "i", "a", and "e", were often interchanged in spelling at that time, it is possible that the "Vig" in Vigdahl was meant to call back to the Veka farm (sometimes spelled Vegge) that Sveinung had come from before leaving Suldal for Seljord. Additionally, Tjerand was now going by the first name of Charles, while his younger sister Ingeborg began using the first name of Emma.
1880 and 1900 census for Sveinung Tjerandson's family
In 1899, Charles Vigdahl (formerly Tjerand Sveinungson) married Susan Gullickson from Logan Twp, Winnebago Co., Iowa, which was right across the county/state line from Freeborn Co., Minnesota. Susan was born in Iowa in 1879, but most of her 8 siblings had been born in Voss, Hordaland, Norway before coming to America in 1873. In the first year or so after their marriage, they lived in Hayward, Freeborn, MN with Charles' parents and siblings. This may have been a bit of a rushed wedding given that their first born, Elsie, was born less than 4 months after tying the knot! By 1905, they had welcomed two more children into the world, David and Ansil Vigdahl (b.1904, direct line) and were living in the warehouse district of West Minneapolis while Charles worked as a mechanical laborer. Then, in 1909, they relocated once again to Mason City, Cerro Gordo, IA, (just SE of Winnebago Co.) where they chose to remain. It was here that they completed their family with their youngest child, Margaret, born in 1911.
In Mason City, Charles worked for the railroad industry doing car repair. By 1920, he and Susan had purchased a home at 630 S Monroe Ave, where the Monroe Plaza South strip mall now stands. Most of their 4 children stayed in Iowa, with the exception of their son David who moved to Alaska. When their son Ansil was 30, he married his first wife, Leona Sandschulte, who grandparents had immigrated from Germany in the mid-1800s. They were married Mar 4, 1935, in a Catholic ceremony at St. John's Catholic Church in Mason City, IA. A little over 6 months later, Leona gave birth to their son Roger Vigdahl (b.1935). Sadly, the labor was complicated, and Leona went into shock following a forceps delivery and passed away. Ansil remarried to Irene Carpenter from Minnesota two and a half years later, but Roger remained their only child. Leona was buried with her parents at the Saint John's Cemetery in Bancroft, Kossuth, IA.
Although many descendants of this line are still found in IA and MN (as well as a few in TX, CO, and MO), those of the line carrying the Vigdahl surname are only still present in Minnesota (our line) and Alaska (Ansil's brother David's line).
Notes
1) A word about spelling as well. Norway did not standardize spelling until the early 1900s, and lots of names have mutated a bit over time. People back then just wrote down what things sounded like when spoken, which could change with the dialect. Often e's and a's were interchanged, for example. Also, American's tended to change k's to c's and v's to g's. Additionally, Norway has a few letters in its alphabet that we don't have. Namely æ, ø, and å, which sometimes get translated as ae, o, and a, but other times can be just "a" or just "e" or oe or aa... Generally speaking, if the name sounds roughly the same, it probably is the same, even if it is spelled quite differently. For instance, in Nesflaten, the farm Avinskei became Overskeid with time.
2) The second born child, Odd Tjerandsen, who was born during the worst of the war food shortage in 1812, does not seem to have ever married or had children. It is possible there were physical/mental deficits caused by lack of nutrition for this child as well. Additionally, of the 5 children who did survive, all but one died in their late 30's to early 50's, unlike previous generations that had usually lived to their late 50's to early 70's.
3) It is possible it was as early as 1877. Census records disagree on the exact timing.
4) The birth year of Gjertrud is not well established, although her father's birth year of 1643 and her husband's birth year of 1691 are more certain. Given these dates, I think it is unlikely that she was born in 1663 as one source suggests though she does seem likely to be a bit older than her husband. For these reasons, I have put my best guess at about 1680 for her birth.
5) The high death toll of the Black Death in Norway compared to other Scandinavian countries was the main reason Norway lost it independence to Denmark in 1397 when it was forced to join the Kalmar Union. Basically, the political structure of both the church and state became so fractured that it was no longer able to defend itself, and nearby neighbors took advantage. It did not fully regain its independence until 1905, at which point, having no legitimate claims to the throne remaining, it offered the throne Prince Carl of Denmark, who was a distant relative of Norway's medieval kings. He accepted, and took on the title of Haakon VII, King of Norway.
References
0) Hoftun, Hallvard M. "Gamie Suldal: gards - og aettesoge" Suldal, Norway: Utgjevar Suldal Kommune, 1972, p. 388, 392-393. FamilySearch.org. https://www.familysearch.org/search/genealogies/submission/8/MMD5-72Z : 2023.
1) Holmsen. Andreas. "The old Norwegian peasant community:
Investigations undertaken by the institute for comparative research in human culture, Oslo". Scandinavian Economic History Review, (1956) 4:1, p.17-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/03585522.1956.10411481 : 2023.
2) Onsager, Lawrence W., "The Norwegian Ancestry of Johannes (John) Larson (1886-1957); From the Bakken Subfarm, Guggedal Main Farm in Rogaland County, Norway to the Suldal Norwegian Settlement in Juneau County, Wisconsin". (2018) The Lemonweir Valley Press : Mauston, WI. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/books/55 : 2023.
3) Brothen, James A. "Population Decline and Plague in late medieval Norway". Annales de Démographie Historique Année. (1996) pp. 137-149. https://www.persee.fr/doc/adh_0066-2062_1996_num_1996_1_1915 : 2023.
4) Bengtsson, T., & Lundh, C. (1999). "Child and infant mortality in the Nordic countries prior to 1900". (Lund Papers
in Economic History; No. 66). Department of Economic History, Lund University. https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/files/22925644/LUP_66.pdf : 2023.
5) Bø, Gudleiv. "The History of a Norwegian National Identity". (2020) University of Oslo. https://www.tsu.ge/data/file_db/scandinavian-studies/Nation-building-the-Norwegian-way.pdf : 2023.
6) Stugu, Ola Svein. "Educational Ideals and Nation Building in Norway 1840-1900". Nordic Lights. Education for Nation and Civic Society in the Nordic Countries, 1850-2000. https://www.academia.edu/1388791/Educational_Ideals_and_Nation_Building_in_Norway_1840_1900 : 2023.
7) Mureșan, Ioana-Andreea. "Norwegian emigration and the emergence of modernity in Norway: America letters and the cases of Knut Hamsun and Sigbjørn Obstfelder". (2020) The Romanian Journal for Baltic and Nordic Studies. https://www.academia.edu/44833005/Norwegian_emigration_and_the_emergence_of_modernity_in_Norway_America_letters_and_the_cases_of_Knut_Hamsun_and_Sigbj%C3%B8rn_Obstfelder : 2023.
7) Mureșan, Ioana-Andreea. "Norwegian emigration and the emergence of modernity in Norway: America letters and the cases of Knut Hamsun and Sigbjørn Obstfelder". (2020) The Romanian Journal for Baltic and Nordic Studies. https://www.academia.edu/44833005/Norwegian_emigration_and_the_emergence_of_modernity_in_Norway_America_letters_and_the_cases_of_Knut_Hamsun_and_Sigbj%C3%B8rn_Obstfelder : 2023.
9) Mykland, Knut [Ed.] Norges Historie, Bind 7, Gjennom Nødsår og krig, p. 221 (Oslo: J.W. Cappelens Forlag, A/S, 1979).
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